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• Akbar had developed a new administrative machinery and revenue system, which were maintained by the subsequent Mughal Emperors (with minor modifications).
  

• The Mansabdari System, as it developed under the Mughals, was a distinctive and unique system.

• The origins of the Mansabdari system, however, can be traced back to Changez Khan. Changez Khan organized his army on a decimal basis, the lowest unit of his army was ten, and the highest ten thousand (toman) whose commander was known as ‘Khan.’

• There is, however, a controversy regarding the Mansabdari system i.e. when it started precisely. From the available evidence, it appears that this system had been initiated by Akbar (in 1577). Along with Mansabdari system, Akbar also reformed the revenue system and introduced two new concepts namely ‘Zat’ and ‘Sawar.’

• The Zat rank signified the personal status of an individual in the imperial hierarchy. Zat had fixed salary.

Classification of Mansab

• There were sixty-six grades or Mansabs from ten to ten thousand. However, ranks above five thousand were reserved for princes.

  • Persons holding ranks below 500 Zat were called ‘Mansabdars;’

  • Persons holding ranks somewhere between 500 and 2,500 were known as ‘Amirs:’ and

  • Persons holding ranks of 2,500 and above were known as ‘Amir-i-umda’ or ‘Amir-i-azam.’

• A person with a rank of 5,000 could have under him a Mansabdar up to a rank of 500 Zat and one with a rank of 4,000 could have a Mansabdar up to a rank of 400 Zat, and so on.

• The categories, however, were not rigid; persons were generally appointed at a low mansab, but gradually (because of his skills and loyalty) promoted. A person could also be demoted if he became incompetent or disloyal (as a mark of punishment).

• All employees of these ranks were expected to maintain a stipulated quota of horses, elephants, beasts of burden (camels and mules), and carts from their own salary.

• A Mansabdar holding the rank of 5,000 Zat had to maintain 340 horses, 100 elephants, 400 camels, 100 mules, and 160 carts. Over a period of time, these were maintained centrally; however, the expenses still were taken from the salary of respective Mansabdar.

• Depending upon the quality, the horses were classified into six categories and the elephants were categorized into five categories. It was practiced because horses and elephants of high breed were greatly prized and were considered indispensable for an efficient military machine.

• For meeting the financial requirements of all levels of Mansabdars, they were paid very handsomely.

  • A Mansabdar with a rank of 5,000 could get a salary of Rs. 30,000/month;

  • A Mansabdar with a rank of 3,000 received Rs. 17,000/month; and

  • A Mansabdar with a rank of 1,000, received Rs. 8,200/month.

• A Mansabdar was allowed to retain 5% of the total salary of the sawars in order to meet various contingent expenses. In addition to this, he (a Mansabdar) had been given two rupees for every sawar that he maintained. This amount had been given to compensate him for his efforts and the larger responsibility (integrated into this work).

• By the end of Akbar's reign, the highest rank a noble could attain was raised from 5,000 to 7,000, which had been given to Mirza Aziz Koka and Raja Man Singh.

• A number of other modifications were, however, carried out, but the Mansabdari system (as discussed above) was maintained until the end of Aurangzeb's reign.

• Depending upon the situation, Mughals also practiced to reduce salaries. For example, the average salary paid to a sawar was reduced by Jahangir.

• Jahangir also introduced a system whereby the selected nobles could be allowed to maintain a larger quota of troopers, without raising their Zat rank. The system was popular as ‘du-aspah’ (a trooper with two horses) or ‘sih-aspah’ (a trooper with three horses) system.

• The salaries of the Mansabdars were given in rupees, but over a period of time, they were normally not paid in cash, but rather by assigning them a ‘jagir.’

• Mansabdars also preferred a jagir because cash payments were likely to be delayed and sometimes even entailed a lot of harassment.

• The salaries of the Mansabdars were put on a month scale i.e. 10 months, 8 months, 6 months or even less than that. Besides, their obligations for the maintenance of a quota of sawars were also brought down accordingly.

• Most of the Marathas who were employed in the Mughal service, were assigned Mansabs on a 5 monthly basis or even less than that. Likewise, they were given a high rank in the hierarchy, but the actual number of horses and effective sawars was much lower – according to their rank (as discussed above).

• Under the Shah Jahan’s administration, the Mansabdari system worked properly, as he had paid personal and meticulous attention to administration.

Mughal Army

• The cavalry was the principal arm of the Mughal army and the ‘Mansabdars’ provided the overwhelming proportion of it. In addition to the mansabdars, the Mughal emperors had also employed individual troopers, namely ‘Ahadis.’

• The Ahadis had been more popular as gentlemen-troopers and received much higher salaries than other troopers of the same rank.

• The Ahadis were a highly trustworthy corps, and they were directly recruited by the emperors.

• An Ahadi mustered up to five horses; however, sometimes two of them shared one horse.

• The duties of Ahadis were of miscellaneous type such as clerical jobs of the imperial offices, the painters of the court, the foremen in the royal karkhanas (factories), etc.

• During the Shah Jahan’s reign, Ahadis were numbered about 7,000 and were well distributed over the different parts of the army. Many of them worked as skilled musketeers (baraq-andaz) and bowmen (tir-andaz).

• In addition to the Ahadis, the emperors had also maintained a crop of royal bodyguards (wala-shuhis) and armed palace guards. They were actually cavalrymen, but served on foot in the citadel and the palace.

• There were a large number of the footmen (piyadgan). Many of them consisted of matchlock-bearers (banduqchi). Their salaries were ranging between three and seven rupees a month.

• The foot-soldiers also included porters, servants, news-runners, swordsmen, wrestlers, and slaves.

• The Mughal emperors had a large stable of war elephants, and also a well-organized park of artillery.

• The artillery was comprised of two sections −

  • Heavy guns, which were used for defending or assaulting forts; these were often clumsy and difficult to move and

  • The light artillery, which was highly mobile and moved with the emperors whenever needed.

• Under the Shah Jahan reign, the Mughal army consisted of about 200,000, excluding the men working in the districts and with faujdars. However, this number increased to 240,000 during the Aurangzeb period.

• Because of being responsible for the expulsion of Babur and the other Timurid princes from Samarkand and the adjoining area (including Khorasan), the Uzbeks were the natural enemies of the Mughals.

• The Khorasanian plateau linked Iran with Central Asia, and was an important trade route to China and India. The Uzbeks clashed with the rising power of the Safavids who claimed Khorasan.

• The Uzbeks tried to exploit the sectarian differences with the Safavid rulers of Iran who had ruthlessly persecuted the Sunnis.

• By considering an ambitious attitude of the Uzbeks, it was natural for the Safavids and the Mughals to ally (against the Uzbek).

• The Ottoman (Turkish Sultan) threat from the west, compelled the Persians to be friend with the Mughals, particularly when they had to face an aggressive Uzbek power in the east.

Akbar and Uzbeks

• In 1511, when Safavids defeated Shaibani Khan (the Uzbek chief), Babur had regained Samarkand; however, it was only for the short period. Further, Babur had to leave the city, as the Uzbeks had defeated the Persians.

• Later, Shah Tahmasp, the Safavids monarch also helped Humayun, when he (Humayun) had defeated and ousted from India by Sher Shah.

• The territorial power of the Uzbeks grew rapidly in the seventies under Abdullah Khan Uzbek.

• In 1572-73, Abdullah Khan Uzbek seized Balkh which, along with Badakhshan, had served as a kind of buffer between the Mughals and the Uzbeks.

• After the death of Shah Tahmasp (in 1576), there was political instability in Iran; hence, by understanding the situation, in 1577, Abdullah Khan II (Uzbek ruler) sent an embassy to Akbar proposing partition of Iran.

• Akbar ignored this appeal (because of sectarian narrowness). A strong Iran was essential to keep the restless Uzbeks in their place. At the same time, Akbar had no desire to get embroiled with the Uzbeks, unless they directly threatened Kabul or the Indian possessions, which was the key to Akbar's foreign policy.

• Akbar sent a return embassy to Abdullah Uzbek in which he asserted that differences in law and religion could not be considered as sufficient ground for conquest.

• Abul Fazl mentioned that the Khyber Pass was built in such a way that a wheeled traffic can also pass through. It was done due to fear of the Mughals, the gates were usually kept closed.

• Speculating an invasion from Badakhshan, Abdullah Uzbek created trouble among the tribesmen of the north-west frontier, which was executed by one of his trustworthy agents, Jalala who was a religious fanatic.

• Because of Abdullah Uzbek’s action, the situation became very serious; therefore, Akbar had to action. It was during this expedition, Akbar lost one of his best friends, Raja Birbal.

• In 1585, Abdullah Uzbek suddenly conquered Badakhshan; both Mirza Hakim (his half-brother) and his grandson sought refuge at Akbar's court and were given suitable mansabs.

• Immediately after the Uzbek’s attack, Mirza Hakim died and then Akbar annexed Kabul and made his dominion.

• Abdullah Khan Uzbek sent another embassy to the Akbar’s court; however, at this time, Akbar was at Attock (on the river Indus). Abdullah Khan revived the earlier proposal for a joint campaign against the Safavid power, and for opening the way for pilgrims to Mecca.

• The Ottoman (Turkish) sultan had invaded northern Iran, and the Uzbeks were threatening Herat in Khorasan.

• Akbar sent a long letter in reply to Abdullah Uzbek's proposal. He disapproved the Turkish action, and proposed to dispatch an army to Iran led by one of the royal princes to help.

• Akbar, however, made no serious preparations to support the threat of a campaign in Iran. Abdullah Uzbek had invaded Khorasan even before Akbar's letter reached him and captured most of the areas be claimed.

• Most likely, an agreement was made that defined the Hindukush as the boundary. Further, the Mughals gave their interest in Badakhshan and Balkh, which had been ruled by Timurid princes till 1585.

• After conquering Qandhar in 1595, Akbar accomplished his objective of establishing a scientific defensible frontier.

• Akbar remained in Lahore until 1598, and left for Agra only after the death of Abdullah Khan Uzbek. After the death of Abdullah, the Uzbeks broke up into contending principalities, and ceased to be a threat to the Mughals for a considerable time.

Mughal-Persian Relations

• In 1649, the setback in Balkh region led to a revival of Uzbek hostility in the Kabul region and Afghan tribal unrest in the Khyber-Ghazni region emboldened the Persians to attack and conquer Qandhar. Collectively, all these were great threat for Shah Jahan; therefore, he launched three major campaigns, led by princes (of blood) to recover Qandhar.

• The first attack was launched by Aurangzeb (popular as the hero of Balkh), with an army of 50,000. Though the Mughals defeated the Persians outside the fort, they could not conquer it in the face of determined Persian opposition.

• After three years, Aurangzeb made another attempt, but again failed. However, in 1653, the most grandiloquent effort was made by Dara Shikoh, the favorite son of Shah Jahan.

• Dara Shikoh had made a great attempt and even maintained his strong position, but ultimately, it was of no avail.

• Because of the repeated attacks and subsequent failures, Mughals lost much more than the loss of Qandhar as a whole. Failure also stained Mughals’ prestige.

• In 1680, the proud Ottoman (Turkish) sultan sent an embassy to Aurangzeb’s court and asked for support. This time, Aurangzeb decided not to repeat the futile contest on Qandhar issue, and hence, agreed for the diplomatic relations with Iran.

Conclusion

• The basic foreign policy of Mughals was based on the defence of India, which was further strengthened by the diplomatic means.

• In spite of the fact that there were (temporary) obstructions over the question of Qandhar; friendship with Persia was Mughals’ keynote.

• Further, the Mughals had also emphasized on relations of equality with leading Asian nations with both −

  • The Safavids, who claimed a special position by virtue of their relationship with the Prophet and

  • The Ottoman sultans who had assumed the title of Padshah-i-Islam and claimed to be the successors of the Caliph of Baghdad.

• The Mughals also used their diplomatic foreign policy to promote India's commercial interests. Kabul and Qandhar were the twin gateways of India's trade with Central Asia.

• From the discussion above given, it is clear that the Mughals succeeded in maintaining a controlled frontier in the north-west, based on the Hindukush, on the one side, and the Kabul-Ghazni line, on the other. However, Qandhar remained as its outer bastion.

• Khusrau (elder brother) was the potential contender of Shah Jahan; therefore, as long as he (Khusrau) was alive, he was a great hurdle (for Shah Jahan). In 1621, Shah Jahan killed Khusrau (who had been kept in his custody) and spread the news that he died due to colic (abdomen pain).

  

• Shahriyar, a younger brother of Shah Jahan, married to Nur Jahan’s daughter (from her former husband) and taken an important command that mentally disturbed Shah Jahan; hence, he (Shah Jahan) rebelled.

• The immediate cause of Shah Jahan’s rebel was the order that given to him to proceed Qandhar, which had been besieged by the Persians, but he refused.

• Shah Jahan was afraid that the Qandhar campaign would be a long and difficult one and that might intrigue against him (i.e. during his absence from the court). Hence, he demanded full authority such as full command of the army, which included the veterans of the Deccan, complete control over Punjab, control over a number of important forts, etc.

• Jahangir was enraged because of strange demands of Shah Jahan. Further, Jahangir had been also convinced that the prince was meditating rebellion; hence, he wrote harsh letters and took punitive steps, which only made the situation worse and resulted in an open breach.

• From Mandu (where he was stationed), Shah Jahan moved to attack Agra in order to capture the treasures lodged there.

• The Mughal commander, posted at Agra, was vigilant and he foiled Shah Jahan’s move. After failing at Agra, Shah Jahan moved to Delhi; by the time, Jahangir had assembled a large army under the command of Mahabat Khan.

• Mahabat Khan was ordered to move on to Mandu (Malwa), Prince Parvez appointed the nominal commander of the army. Another army was sent to Gujarat.

• Shah Jahan was forced out of the Mughal territories and compelled to take shelter nearby the Deccani rulers, his erstwhile enemies. Further, he crossed the Deccan into Orissa, controlled the governor by surprise, and then he also took the control of Bengal and Bihar.

• Mahabat Khan was again deputed against Shah Jahan and he successfully forced Shah Jahan to retreat to the Deccan again. This time, Shah Jahan made an alliance with Malik Amber who was once again at war with the Mughals. But the by time, Shah Jahan failed to success in his expedition and hence he wrote a humble letter his father Jahangir.

• Jahangir realized that time came to pardon and conciliate his brightest and most energetic son. However, in 1626, as part of the agreement, two of Shah Jahan's sons, namely Dara and Aurangzeb, were sent to the Jahangir’s court as a hostage, and II tract in the Deccan was assigned for Shah Jahan's expenses.

• Jahangir’s health was gradually deteriorating, however, he was still mentally alert, and did allow to make any decisions without his consensus.

• Jahangir's illness increased the vulnerability that an ambitious noble might try to use the situation to take supreme power in his hands.

• Mahabat Khan who had played a leading role in controlling Shah Jahan's rebellion, had been feeling disgruntled because certain elements at the court were eager to clip his wings after the end of the prince's rebellion.

• Mahabat Khan’s alliance with Prince Parvez was also a threat. Summoned by the court to render accounts, Mababat Khan came with a trusted body of Rajput and seized the emperor at an appropriate moment when the royal camp was crossing the river Jhelum on its way to Kabul. Nur Jahan, who had not been apprehended, escaped.

• Nur Jahan played a trick and hence, she surrendered herself to Mahabat Khan in order to be close to Jahangir, and tried to pause the suspicions of Mahabat Khan; however, she was secretly trying her best to weaken his (Mahabat Khan) position.

• Over a period of time, Nur Jahan took advantage of the mistakes and weakness of Mahabat Khan (who was actually a soldier, and not a diplomat or an administrator), she managed to wean away most of the nobles from Mahabat Khan's side. Further, Rajput soldiers were also not in support of Mahabat Khan.

• Soon Mahabat Khan realized his precarious position, and hence, he fled from the Jahangir’s court. Later, he joined Shah Jahan.

• Nur Jahan’s victory over Mahabat Khan was her greatest victory and a true reflection of her cool courage and sagacity. However, she could not enjoy her victory for long, as Jahangir died (in 1627).

• After Jahangir’s death, Asaf Khan, supported by the divan, the chief nobles, and the army, arrested Nur Jahan and sent an urgent summons to Shah Jahan. In the meantime, Asaf Khan appointed Khusrau’s son as puppet emperor.

• Shah Jahan’s younger brother, Shahriyar, made a feeble effort for the throne, but he was easily defeated and thrown into prison (and blinded).

• Shah Jahan's reign effectively from 1628 to 1658), which was full of distinct activities (as discussed above).

• Nur Jahan first married to an Iranian, Sher Afghan, and after his death (in a clash with the Mughal governor of Bengal), she married to Jahangir in 1611.

• After marrying with Nur Jahan, Jahangir appointed her father Itimaduddaula as joint diwan and later he had been promoted to chief diwan. Besides, other members of her (Nur Jahan) family also benefited.

• In ten years of his service, Itimaduddaula proved his loyalty, competency, and acumen. He made a considerable influence in the affairs of the state until his death.

• Asaf Khan, Nur Jahan's brother, was also a learned and deserving man. He was appointed as the ‘khan-i-saman;’ it was the post reserved for the highly trustworthy nobles.

• Asaf Khan married his daughter with Khurram (later Shah Jahan). Khurram was favorite of Jahangir particularly after the rebellion and imprisonment of Khusrau.

• Some historians mentioned that along with her father and brother, and in alliance with Khurram, Nur Jahan formed a group or "junta," which managed Jahangir’s governance at such a level that without its support no one could approach emperor. This led to the division of the court into two groups i.e. Nur Jahan "junta" and its opponents.

• Over a period of time, Nur Jahan became ambitious and tried to dominate, which resulted in a breach between her and Shah Jahan, and that this drove Shah Jahan into rebellion against his father in 1622. It was the time when Shah Jahan felt that Jahangir was completely under Nur Jahan's influence. However, some other historians are not agreed with this view.

• The precise political role of Nur Jahan during that period is not clear. However, she dominated the royal household and set a new fashion based on Persian traditions.

• Nur Jahan was the consistent companion of Jahangir, and even joined him in his hunting expeditions since she was a good rider and a shooter. However, Jahangir was not dependent on the "junta" or on Nur Jahan’s diplomacy.

• Shah Jahan became powerful because of his personal qualities and achievements rather than the support of Nur Jahan. And, Shah Jahan had his own ambitions of which Jahangir was not unaware.

• During the Mughal period, no emperor could afford or allow a noble or even a prince to become so powerful (lest he challenged his authority). Probably, it was the reason of the conflict arose between Jahangir and Shah Jahan.

• नूरजहाँ ने पहली बार एक ईरानी, ​​​​शेर अफगान से शादी की, और उसकी मृत्यु के बाद (बंगाल के मुगल गवर्नर के साथ संघर्ष में), उसने 1611 में जहाँगीर से शादी की।

• नूरजहाँ से शादी करने के बाद, जहाँगीर ने उसके पिता इतिमादुद्दौला को संयुक्त  दीवान नियुक्त किया  और बाद में उन्हें प्रमुख दीवान के रूप में पदोन्नत किया गया। इसके अलावा उनके (नूरजहाँ) परिवार के अन्य सदस्यों को भी लाभ हुआ।

• अपनी सेवा के दस वर्षों में, इतिमादुद्दौला ने अपनी निष्ठा, योग्यता और कुशाग्रता साबित की। उन्होंने अपनी मृत्यु तक राज्य के मामलों में काफी प्रभाव डाला।

• नूरजहाँ के भाई आसफ खान भी एक विद्वान और योग्य व्यक्ति थे। उन्हें ' खान-ए-सामन ' के रूप में नियुक्त किया गया था ; यह अत्यधिक भरोसेमंद रईसों के लिए आरक्षित पद था।

• आसफ खान ने अपनी बेटी की शादी खुर्रम (बाद में शाहजहां) से की। खुर्रम जहाँगीर का पसंदीदा था विशेषकर खुसरो के विद्रोह और कारावास के बाद।

• कुछ इतिहासकारों ने उल्लेख किया है कि अपने पिता और भाई के साथ, और खुर्रम के साथ गठबंधन में, नूरजहाँ ने एक समूह या " जुंटा " का गठन किया , जिसने जहाँगीर के शासन को इस तरह से प्रबंधित किया कि उसके समर्थन के बिना कोई भी सम्राट से संपर्क नहीं कर सकता था। इससे दरबार का दो समूहों में विभाजन हो गया अर्थात नूरजहाँ " जुंटा " और उसके विरोधी।

• समय के साथ, नूरजहाँ महत्वाकांक्षी हो गई और हावी होने की कोशिश की, जिसके परिणामस्वरूप उसके और शाहजहाँ के बीच एक दरार आ गई, और इसने 1622 में शाहजहाँ को उसके पिता के खिलाफ विद्रोह में डाल दिया। यह वह समय था जब शाहजहाँ को लगा कि जहाँगीर पूरी तरह से नूरजहाँ के प्रभाव में था। हालांकि, कुछ अन्य इतिहासकार इस मत से सहमत नहीं हैं।

• उस अवधि के दौरान नूरजहाँ की सटीक राजनीतिक भूमिका स्पष्ट नहीं है। हालांकि, वह शाही घराने पर हावी रही और फारसी परंपराओं के आधार पर एक नया फैशन स्थापित किया।

• नूरजहाँ जहाँगीर की लगातार साथी थी, और यहाँ तक कि उसके शिकार अभियानों में भी शामिल हो गई क्योंकि वह एक अच्छी सवार और निशानेबाज थी। हालाँकि, जहाँगीर " जुंटा " या नूरजहाँ की कूटनीति पर निर्भर नहीं था ।

• शाहजहाँ नूरजहाँ के समर्थन के बजाय अपने व्यक्तिगत गुणों और उपलब्धियों के कारण शक्तिशाली बन गया। और, शाहजहाँ की अपनी महत्वाकांक्षाएँ थीं जिनसे जहाँगीर अनजान नहीं था।

• मुगल काल के दौरान, कोई भी सम्राट किसी कुलीन या राजकुमार को इतना शक्तिशाली बनने की अनुमति नहीं दे सकता था (ऐसा न हो कि वह अपने अधिकार को चुनौती दे)। संभवतः यही जहाँगीर और शाहजहाँ के बीच हुए संघर्ष का कारण था।

• The Mughal rulers, particularly Akbar, personally refurbished and consolidated the administrative system. Akbar maintained the alliance with the Rajput.
  

• Akbar and his successors successfully maintained further attempted to broaden the political base of the Mughal Empire by allying with powerful sections including the Afghans and the Marathas.

• Mughals architected their capitals not only beautifully, but also strategically where they tried to make the Mughal court the center of the cultural life in the country.

• The Mughals played a positive role in developing and stabilizing India’s relations with her neighboring Asian powers, including Iran, the Uzbeks, and the Ottoman Turks. Likewise, the Mughals opened and promoted India’s foreign trade.

  

Mughal’s Successions

• Jahangir, the eldest son of Akbar, succeeded to the throne without any difficulty, as his younger brothers died at early age (during the life time of Akbar) because of excessive drinking.

• Khusrau, the eldest son of Jahangir, broke out into rebellion (Jahangir had also rebelled once against his father, and disturbed the empire for some time). However, Khusrau soon accepted his mistake and forgave by Jahangir.

Diplomatic Policy of Mughals

• Like Akbar, Jahangir also realized that the conquest could be lasting on the basis not of force, but rather of winning the goodwill of the people. He, therefore, treated the defeated Afghan chief and their followers with great sympathy.

• Jahangir, by following his diplomatic policy and released many of the princes and zamindars of Bengal who were detained at the court and allowed to return to Bengal. Musa Khan was released and his estates were restored.

• To continue the policy, the Afghans also began to be welcomed into the Mughal nobility. The leading Afghan noble under Jahangir was Khan-i-Jahan Lodi who served the distinguished service in the Deccan.

• Jahangir, however, had to begin a long era of peace, but the situation was changed radically by two incidents −

  • The Persian conquest of Qandhar, which was a misfortune to Mughal prestige and

  • Deteriorating health of Jahangir.

• These two incidents unleashed the latent struggle for the succession among the princes as well as among the nobles (who were also competing for power). Further, the deteriorating health of Jahangir also introduced Nur Jahan into the political affairs

• The Deccani states had a number of cultural contributions to their credit. Adil Shah was very fond of organizing discussions with Hindu and Muslim saints.

• Adil Shah invited Catholic missionaries to his court, much before Akbar had done so. He had an excellent library to which he appointed the well-known Sanskrit scholar, Vaman pandit. Patronage of Sanskrit and Marathi was continued by his successors.

• Ibrahim Adil Shah II (1580-1627), the successor of Adil Shah, ascended the throne (of Bijapur) at the age of nine. He was very attentive of the poor, and had the title of abla baba, or Friend of the Poor.

• Adil Shah II was very fond of music; he composed a book namely Kitab-e-Navras (Book of Nine Rasas). In this book, he set various musical modes or togas. In his songs, he freely prayed the goddess of music and learning, Saraswati. Due to his broad approach, he came to be called as Jagat Guru.

• Adil Shah II, further, built a new capital, Nauraspur; where he invited a large number of musicians (to settle). He offered patronage to all, including Hindu saints and temples. This included grants to Pandharpur, the center of the worship of Vithoba, which became the center of the Bhakti movement in Maharashtra.

• Qutb Shah employed both Hindus and Muslims people in his military, administrative, and diplomatic departments.

• Golconda was the popular intellectual resort for the literary men. Sultan Muhammad Qutb Shah (who was a contemporary of Akbar) was very fond of both literature and architecture.

• Sultan Muhammad Qutb Shah wrote in Dakhini Urdu, Persian, and Telugu and left an extensive collection. He was the first who introduced a secular note in poetry.

• Qutb Shah not only wrote about God and the Prophet (their praise), but he also wrote about nature, love, and the social life of his time.

• The successors of Qutb Shah and many other poets and writers of his time adopted Urdu as a literary language. In addition to Urdu language, Persian, Hindi, and Telugu were also significant for the idioms and vocabulary.

• Urdu gradually percolate to north India from the Deccan by the eighteenth century.

• In 1591-92, Quli Qutb Shah founded the city Hyderabad, he also constructed many buildings, the most famous of which is the Char Minar.

• The Gol Gumbaz (the mausoleum of Mohammed Adil Shah, Sultan of Bijapur) which was built in 1656 has the largest single dome ever constructed. The architect of Gol Gumbaz was Yaqut of Dabul.

• दक्कनी राज्यों ने अपने क्रेडिट में कई सांस्कृतिक योगदान दिए थे। आदिल शाह को हिंदू और मुस्लिम संतों के साथ चर्चा आयोजित करने का बहुत शौक था।

•  अकबर के ऐसा करने से बहुत पहले आदिल शाह  ने  कैथोलिक मिशनरियों को अपने दरबार में आमंत्रित किया था। उनके पास एक उत्कृष्ट पुस्तकालय था जिसमें उन्होंने प्रसिद्ध  संस्कृत  विद्वान वामन पंडित को नियुक्त किया।  उनके उत्तराधिकारियों ने संस्कृत और  मराठी का संरक्षण जारी रखा।

• आदिल शाह के उत्तराधिकारी इब्राहिम आदिल शाह II (1580-1627) नौ साल की उम्र में (बीजापुर के) सिंहासन पर चढ़े। वह गरीबों के प्रति बहुत चौकस थे, और उनके पास  अबला बाबा , या गरीबों के मित्र की उपाधि थी।

• आदिल शाह द्वितीय को संगीत का बहुत शौक था; उन्होंने  किताब-ए-नवरस  (नौ  रसों की पुस्तक ) नामक एक पुस्तक की रचना की। इस पुस्तक में, उन्होंने विभिन्न संगीत विधाओं या टोगास को सेट किया। अपने गीतों में, उन्होंने स्वतंत्र रूप से संगीत और विद्या की देवी सरस्वती की पूजा की। उनके व्यापक दृष्टिकोण के कारण, उन्हें  जगत गुरु कहा जाने लगा ।

• आदिल शाह द्वितीय ने आगे, एक नई राजधानी,  नौरसपुर का निर्माण किया ; जहां उन्होंने बड़ी संख्या में संगीतकारों को (बसने के लिए) आमंत्रित किया। उन्होंने हिंदू संतों और मंदिरों सहित सभी को संरक्षण दिया।  इसमें विठोबा की पूजा के केंद्र पंढरपुर को अनुदान शामिल था, जो महाराष्ट्र में भक्ति आंदोलन का केंद्र बन गया  ।

• कुतुब शाह ने अपने सैन्य, प्रशासनिक और राजनयिक विभागों में हिंदू और मुस्लिम दोनों लोगों को नियुक्त किया।

• गोलकुंडा साहित्यकारों के लिए लोकप्रिय बौद्धिक स्थल था। सुल्तान मुहम्मद कुतुब शाह (जो अकबर के समकालीन थे) साहित्य और वास्तुकला दोनों के बहुत शौकीन थे।

• सुल्तान मुहम्मद कुतुब शाह ने  दखिनी उर्दू ,  फारसी और  तेलुगु में लिखा  और एक व्यापक संग्रह छोड़ा। वह पहले व्यक्ति थे जिन्होंने कविता में धर्मनिरपेक्ष नोट पेश किया।

• कुतुब शाह ने न केवल ईश्वर और पैगंबर (उनकी प्रशंसा) के बारे में लिखा, बल्कि उन्होंने प्रकृति, प्रेम और अपने समय के सामाजिक जीवन के बारे में भी लिखा।

• कुतुब शाह के उत्तराधिकारियों और उनके समय के कई अन्य कवियों और लेखकों ने उर्दू को एक साहित्यिक भाषा के रूप में अपनाया। उर्दू भाषा के अलावा, मुहावरों और शब्दावली के लिए फ़ारसी, हिंदी और तेलुगु भी महत्वपूर्ण थे।

• अठारहवीं शताब्दी तक उर्दू धीरे-धीरे दक्कन से उत्तर भारत में फैल गई।

• 1591-92 में, कुली कुतुब शाह ने हैदराबाद शहर की स्थापना की, उन्होंने कई इमारतों का निर्माण भी किया, जिनमें से सबसे प्रसिद्ध  चार मीनार है ।

• गोल गुंबज (बीजापुर के सुल्तान मोहम्मद आदिल शाह का मकबरा) जिसे 1656 में बनाया गया था, अब तक का सबसे बड़ा एकल गुंबद है। गोल गुम्बज के वास्तुकार दाबुल के याकूत थे।

Shah Jahan

• Shah Jahan ascended the throne in 1627. At the same time, Ahmednagar lost badly and Bijapur and Golconda accepted the Mughal Suzerainty.

• Shah Jahan came to a conclusion that there could be no peace for the Mughals in the Deccan as long as Ahmednagar continued as an independent state. This conclusion was a major departure from the policy, which had been followed by Akbar and Jahangir.

• Shah Jahan was not much interested to extend Mughal territories in the Deccan beyond what was necessary. He, therefore, sent a message to Bijapur ruler and offered to cede to him roughly one-third of the Ahmednagar state.

• The demand of one-third territory from Ahmednagar was a shrewd move on the part of Shah Jahan with the intent to isolate Ahmednagar diplomatically and militarily. Jahangir also offered services to the various Maratha sardars.

Adil Shah

• Adil Shah also was anxious because of Malik Ambar’s humiliation and the annexation of Sholapur. He, therefore, accepted Shah Jahan's proposal, and deputed an army at the Nizam Shahi border to cooperate with the Mughals.

• In 1629, Shah Jahan strategically deputed a large army against Ahmednagar; one group sent to operate in the Balaghat region (in the west), and the other in the Telangana region (in the east).

• The Mughals, on their part, had refused to hand over to the Adil Shah the areas allotted to him under the agreement. As a result of this, Adil decided to help Nizam Shah who agreed to surrender Sholapur to him.

• Adil Shah sent a large army under Randaula Khan (Bijapur General) and Murari Pandit for the surrender of Daulatabad and for provisioning its garrison.

• Shahji Bhonsle also was joined in Bijapur's service to harass the Mughals and cut off their supplies. But the combined operations of the Bijapuri forces and Shahji’s forces were failed.

• In 1633, Mahabat Khan (Mughal general) was closely interested in Daulatabad, and forced the garrison to surrender.

• After the defeat, Nizam Shah was sent to prison in Gwalior (Madhya Pradesh). This war marked as the end of the Nizam Shahi dynasty.

• By following the path of Malik Ambar, Shahji nurtured a Nizam Shahi prince, and raised him up as ruler.

• Adil Shah sent a force of seven to eight thousand horsemen to support Shahji, and encouraged many of the Nizam Shahi nobles to surrender their forts to Shahji.

• Many scattered Nizam Shahi soldiers joined Shahji whose force swelled to 20,000 horse. With these, he harassed the Mughals and took control of large portions of the Ahmednagar state.

• By understanding the critical situation, Shah Jahan deputed a large army to invade Bijapur. Further, the policy of carrot and stick and the advance of Shah Jahan to the Deccan changed the Bijapur politics.

• The leaders of the anti-Mughal group including Murari Pandit were displaced and killed and a new agreement was made with Shah Jahan. According to this treaty, Adil Shah agreed to −

  • Recognize Mughal suzerainty,

  • Pay an indemnity of twenty lakhs of rupees, and

  • Not to interfere in the affairs of Golconda, which was brought under Mughal protection.

• Adil Shah also agreed to operate with the Mughals for reducing Shahji to submission, and if he agreed to join Bijapuri service, to depute him in the south, away from the Mughal frontier.

• Shah Jahan also sent to Adil Shah a solemn Farman (summon) impressed with the mark of the emperor's palm that the terms of this treaty would never be violated.

• A peace agreement with the Mughals enabled the Deccani states to expand their territories towards the further south and to strengthen their power and prosperity.

• Soon after the treaties of 1636, Bijapur and Golconda overran the rich and fertile Karnataka area from the river Krishna to Tanjore and beyond.

• A series of campaigns were conducted by Bijapur and Golconda against the southern states.

• Over a period of time, rapid expansion weakened internal cohesion of these southern states. Ambitious nobles such as Shahji, and his son Shivaji in Bijapur, and Mir Junda, the leading noble of Golconda, started carving out spheres of influence for themselves.

• In the south, however, the development came to an end in 1656 after the death of Muhammad Adil Shah, and arrival of Aurangzeb as the Mughal viceroy of the Deccan.

शाह जहां

• शाहजहाँ 1627 में गद्दी पर बैठा। उसी समय, अहमदनगर बुरी तरह हार गया और बीजापुर और गोलकुंडा ने मुगल आधिपत्य स्वीकार कर लिया।

• शाहजहाँ इस निष्कर्ष पर पहुंचा कि जब तक अहमदनगर एक स्वतंत्र राज्य के रूप में जारी रहा, तब तक दक्कन में मुगलों के लिए कोई शांति नहीं हो सकती। यह निष्कर्ष उस नीति से एक प्रमुख प्रस्थान था, जिसका पालन अकबर और जहांगीर ने किया था।

• शाहजहाँ को दक्कन में मुगल क्षेत्रों का विस्तार आवश्यक से अधिक करने में कोई दिलचस्पी नहीं थी। इसलिए, उसने बीजापुर शासक को एक संदेश भेजा और उसे अहमदनगर राज्य का लगभग एक तिहाई हिस्सा सौंपने की पेशकश की।

• अहमदनगर से एक तिहाई क्षेत्र की मांग, शाहजहाँ की ओर से अहमदनगर को कूटनीतिक और सैन्य रूप से अलग-थलग करने के इरादे से एक चतुर चाल थी। जहांगीर ने विभिन्न मराठा सरदारों को भी सेवाएं  दीं ।

आदिल शाही

• आदिल शाह  भी मलिक अंबर के अपमान और शोलापुर के कब्जे के कारण चिंतित था। इसलिए, उसने शाहजहाँ के प्रस्ताव को स्वीकार कर लिया, और मुगलों के साथ सहयोग करने के लिए निजाम शाही सीमा पर एक सेना की प्रतिनियुक्ति की।

• 1629 में, शाहजहाँ ने रणनीतिक रूप से अहमदनगर के खिलाफ एक बड़ी सेना की प्रतिनियुक्ति की; एक समूह को बालाघाट क्षेत्र (पश्चिम में) और दूसरा तेलंगाना क्षेत्र (पूर्व में) में काम करने के लिए भेजा गया।

• मुगलों ने, अपनी ओर से, आदिल शाह को समझौते के तहत उन्हें आवंटित क्षेत्रों को सौंपने से इनकार कर दिया था। इसके परिणामस्वरूप, आदिल ने निजाम शाह की मदद करने का फैसला किया, जो शोलापुर को उसे सौंपने के लिए सहमत हो गया।

• आदिल शाह ने रंदौला खान (बीजापुर जनरल) और मुरारी पंडित के नेतृत्व में एक बड़ी सेना को दौलताबाद के आत्मसमर्पण के लिए और उसकी चौकी का प्रावधान करने के लिए भेजा।

• मुगलों को परेशान करने और उनकी आपूर्ति में कटौती करने के लिए शाहजी भोंसले भी बीजापुर की सेवा में शामिल हो गए थे। लेकिन बीजापुरी सेना और शाहजी की सेना की संयुक्त कार्रवाई विफल रही।

• 1633 में, महाबत खान (मुगल जनरल) की दौलताबाद में गहरी दिलचस्पी थी, और उन्होंने गैरीसन को आत्मसमर्पण करने के लिए मजबूर किया।

• हार के बाद निजाम शाह को ग्वालियर (मध्य प्रदेश) की जेल भेज दिया गया। इस युद्ध को निजाम शाही राजवंश के अंत के रूप में चिह्नित किया गया।

• मलिक अंबर के मार्ग पर चलकर शाहजी ने एक निजाम शाही राजकुमार का पालन-पोषण किया और उसे शासक के रूप में पाला।

• आदिल शाह ने शाहजी का समर्थन करने के लिए सात से आठ हजार घुड़सवारों का एक दल भेजा, और कई निजाम शाही रईसों को अपने किले शाहजी को सौंपने के लिए प्रोत्साहित किया।

• कई बिखरे हुए निज़ाम शाही सैनिक शाहजी में शामिल हो गए, जिनकी सेना 20,000 घोड़ों तक बढ़ गई। इनसे उसने मुगलों को परेशान किया और अहमदनगर राज्य के बड़े हिस्से पर अधिकार कर लिया।

• गंभीर स्थिति को समझकर, शाहजहाँ ने बीजापुर पर आक्रमण करने के लिए एक बड़ी सेना की प्रतिनियुक्ति की। इसके अलावा, गाजर और छड़ी की नीति और शाहजहाँ के दक्कन की ओर बढ़ने से बीजापुर की राजनीति बदल गई।

• मुरारी पंडित सहित मुगल विरोधी गुट के नेताओं को विस्थापित कर मार दिया गया और शाहजहाँ के साथ एक नया समझौता किया गया। इस संधि के अनुसार, आदिल शाह - . के लिए सहमत हुए

  • मुगल आधिपत्य को पहचानो,

  • बीस लाख रुपये की क्षतिपूर्ति का भुगतान करें, और

  • गोलकुंडा के मामलों में हस्तक्षेप नहीं करना, जिसे मुगल संरक्षण में लाया गया था।

• आदिल शाह भी शाहजी को अधीन करने के लिए मुगलों के साथ काम करने के लिए सहमत हुए, और यदि वह बीजापुरी सेवा में शामिल होने के लिए सहमत हुए, तो उन्हें मुगल सीमा से दूर दक्षिण में प्रतिनियुक्त करने के लिए।

• शाहजहाँ ने आदिल शाह को सम्राट की हथेली के निशान से प्रभावित एक गंभीर  फरमान  (समन) भी भेजा कि इस संधि की शर्तों का कभी उल्लंघन नहीं किया जाएगा।

• मुगलों के साथ एक शांति समझौते ने दक्कनी राज्यों को अपने क्षेत्रों को आगे दक्षिण की ओर विस्तारित करने और अपनी शक्ति और समृद्धि को मजबूत करने में सक्षम बनाया।

• 1636 की संधियों के तुरंत बाद, बीजापुर और गोलकुंडा ने कृष्णा नदी से लेकर तंजौर और उससे आगे तक समृद्ध और उपजाऊ कर्नाटक क्षेत्र पर कब्जा कर लिया।

• बीजापुर और गोलकुंडा द्वारा दक्षिणी राज्यों के खिलाफ कई अभियान चलाए गए।

• समय के साथ, तेजी से विस्तार ने इन दक्षिणी राज्यों के आंतरिक सामंजस्य को कमजोर कर दिया। बीजापुर में शाहजी और उनके बेटे शिवाजी और गोलकुंडा के प्रमुख कुलीन मीर जुंडा जैसे महत्वाकांक्षी रईसों ने अपने लिए प्रभाव क्षेत्रों को तराशना शुरू कर दिया।

• दक्षिण में, हालांकि, 1656 में मुहम्मद आदिल शाह की मृत्यु के बाद और औरंगजेब के दक्कन के मुगल वायसराय के रूप में आने के बाद विकास समाप्त हो गया।

• In 1591, Akbar sent embassies to all the Deccani states inviting them to accept Mughal suzerainty. None of the states accepted this.

• The Mughal invasion on Ahmednagar was led by prince Murad, who was the governor of Gujarat (at that time), and reinforced by Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan.

• Chand Bibi shut herself up in the fort (of Ahmednagar) with the boy-king, Bahadur. After a close siege of four months in which Chand Bibi played a heroic role, the two sides (Mughals and Ahmednagar) agreed for an agreement and in 1596, Mughal suzerainty was accepted.

• The Mughal annexation of Berar alarmed other Deccani states a combined force of Bijapur, Golconda, and Ahmednagar led by a Bijapur commander invaded Berar.

• In 1597, the Mughals defeated the Deccani forces. As a result of this defeat, the Bijapur and Golconda forces withdrew and left Chand Bibi to meet the situation alone. Likewise, Mughal had sieged Ahmednagar, for the second time.

• In the absence of any external help from outside, Chand Bibi had agreed for the negotiations with the Mughals, but she was accused of treachery by a hostile faction and hence was killed.

• The Mughals now assaulted and captured Ahmednagar and the boy-king, Bahadur, was sent to the fortress of Gwalior.

• In 1601, Khandesh was unified in the Mughal Empire. After the capture of Asirgarh, Akbar returned to the north to deal with the rebellion of his son, Salim.

• Akbar was conscious that no lasting solution to the Deccan problem could be arrived without an agreement with Bijapur. To assure himself, Akbar sent the messages to Ibrahim Adil Shah II; as a result of which he (Adil Shah II) married his daughter to prince Daniyal (the youngest son of Akbar).

• In 1602 prince Daniyal (immediately after his marriage) died because of excessive drinking. Thus the situation in the Deccan remained vague.

Rise of Malik Amber

• Malik Ambar was an Abyssinian (born in Ethiopia). There is little known about his early life; however, probably, he was from a poor family and his parents sold him in a slave market in Baghdad. Later, he was purchased by a merchant who treated him well and brought him to the Deccan.

• When the Mughals invaded Ahmednagar, Ambar at first went to Bijapur to try his luck there. But he soon returned back and joined himself in the powerful Habshi (Abyssinian) party, which was opposed to Chand Bibi.

• After the fall of Ahmednagar, Malik Ambar with the implied support of the ruler of Bijapur, received the title of Peshwa (a title which had been common in Ahmednagar those days).

• Malik Ambar gathered around him a large band of Maratha troopers (or bargis). The Marathas were adept in rapid movements, and in plundering and cutting off the supplies of the enemy troops.

• Abdul Rahim Khan-e-Khana was the Mughal commander in the Deccan; he was a shrewd and wily politician and an intelligent soldier. In 1601, he (Abdul Rahim) inflicted a crushing defeat on Ambar at a place called Nander (in Telangana). However, the war ended with a friendship agreement between Abdul Rahim and Amber.

• In October 1605, Akbar died. After his death, there were differences among the Mughal commanders in Deccan regions; this situation gave an opportunity to Amber and hence he unleashed an aggressive campaign to expel the Mughals from Berar, Balaghat, and Ahmednagar.

• Amber’s campaign was actively supported by Ibrahim Adil Shah (the ruler of Bijapur). Adil Shah considered it essential because he thought that the Nizam Shahi state should continue as a buffer between Bijapur and the Mughals.

• Adil Shah gave Amber the powerful fort of Qandhar in Telangana for the residence of his family and stowing treasures, provisions, etc. Father, Adil Shah also sent 10,000 horsemen to support Amber.

• In 1609, the treaty was cemented by a marriage alliance between the daughters of one of the leading Ethiopian nobles of Bijapur with Malik Ambar. Adil Shah gave a handsome dowry to the bride and spent about Rs. 80,000 on fireworks. Likewise, by 1610, most of the territories (in south) won by Akbar were lost.

Jahangir

• Jahangir sent prince Parvez with a large army to conquest Deccan, but he could not meet the challenges posed by Malik Ambar. Lastly, Ahmednagar was also lost, and Parvez had to conclude with a disgraceful peace agreement with Ambar.

• Over a period of time, Malik Ambar became arrogant and separated his allies. The Khan-i-Khana, who had been posted as the Mughal viceroy of the Deccan once again, took advantage of the situation and won over to his side a number of Habshis as well as Maratha nobles, including Jagdev Rai, Babaji Kate, Udaji Ram, etc.

• In 1616, with the help of the Maratha sardars, Khan-i-Khana defeated the combined forces of Ahmednagar, Bijapur, and Golconda. This defeat shook the Deccani alliance against the Mughals. However, Ambar did not relax his efforts.

• Jahangir, however, was not interested to extend Mughal commitments in the Deccan, or even become too deeply involved in its affairs. He had belief that his moderation would enable the Deccani states to settle down, and live in peace with the Mughals.

• Despite Jahangir’s diplomatic policy, Ambar continued to lead the Deccan' resistance against the Mughals. After two years, the combined Deccani forces were again defeated by the Mughals. The credit for these victories was given to Prince Shah Jahan.

• After the defeat, the Deccani states had to pay an indemnity of Rs. 5,000,000. Later, Amber conducted a series of campaigns against Bijapur for the recovery of Sholapur, which was a bone of contention between the two states.

• Ambar had shown a remarkable military skill, energy, and determination. His achievements were short-lived due to his inability or reluctance to accept Mughal’s terms and conditions.

• Malik Ambar attempted to improve the administrative system of Nizam Shahi state by introducing Todar mal's land revenue system. He abolished the old system of giving land on contract.

• After 1622, in a situation, when Deccan was in turmoil due to the rebellion of Prince Shah Jahan against his father Jahangir, Malik Ambar once again managed to recover many of the old territories, which had been ceded by the Mughals. However, he could not live much long after this and died in 1626 at the age of 80.

• 1591 में, अकबर ने सभी दक्कनी राज्यों में दूतावास भेजे और उन्हें मुगल आधिपत्य स्वीकार करने के लिए आमंत्रित किया। किसी भी राज्य ने इसे स्वीकार नहीं किया।

• अहमदनगर पर मुगल आक्रमण का नेतृत्व राजकुमार मुराद ने किया था, जो उस समय गुजरात के राज्यपाल थे, और अब्दुर रहीम खान-ए-खानन द्वारा प्रबलित थे।

• चांद बीबी  ने लड़के-राजा बहादुर के साथ किले (अहमदनगर के) में खुद को बंद कर लिया। चार महीने की एक करीबी घेराबंदी के बाद, जिसमें चांद बीबी ने एक वीर भूमिका निभाई, दोनों पक्ष (मुगल और अहमदनगर) एक समझौते के लिए सहमत हुए और 1596 में, मुगल आधिपत्य स्वीकार कर लिया गया।

• बरार के मुगल कब्जे ने अन्य दक्कनी राज्यों को चिंतित कर दिया, बीजापुर, गोलकुंडा और अहमदनगर की एक संयुक्त सेना ने बीजापुर कमांडर के नेतृत्व में बरार पर आक्रमण किया।

• 1597 में, मुगलों ने दक्कनी सेना को हराया। इस हार के परिणामस्वरूप, बीजापुर और गोलकुंडा सेना वापस ले ली और अकेले स्थिति का सामना करने के लिए चांद बीबी को छोड़ दिया। इसी तरह, मुगल ने दूसरी बार अहमदनगर की घेराबंदी की थी।

• बाहर से किसी भी बाहरी सहायता के अभाव में, चांद बीबी मुगलों के साथ बातचीत के लिए सहमत हो गई थी, लेकिन उस पर एक शत्रुतापूर्ण गुट द्वारा विश्वासघात का आरोप लगाया गया था और इसलिए उसे मार दिया गया था।

• मुगलों ने अब हमला किया और अहमदनगर पर कब्जा कर लिया और लड़के-राजा बहादुर को ग्वालियर के किले में भेज दिया गया।

• 1601 में खानदेश मुगल साम्राज्य में एकीकृत हो गया था। असीरगढ़ पर कब्जा करने के बाद, अकबर अपने बेटे सलीम के विद्रोह से निपटने के लिए उत्तर की ओर लौट आया।

• अकबर इस बात से अवगत था कि बीजापुर के साथ समझौते के बिना दक्कन की समस्या का कोई स्थायी समाधान नहीं हो सकता। खुद को आश्वस्त करने के लिए, अकबर ने इब्राहिम आदिल शाह द्वितीय को संदेश भेजे; जिसके परिणामस्वरूप उन्होंने (आदिल शाह द्वितीय) ने अपनी बेटी की शादी राजकुमार दनियाल (अकबर के सबसे छोटे बेटे) से कर दी।

• 1602 में अत्यधिक शराब पीने के कारण राजकुमार दनियाल (उनकी शादी के तुरंत बाद) की मृत्यु हो गई। इस प्रकार दक्कन में स्थिति अस्पष्ट बनी रही।

मलिक अंबर का उदय

• मलिक अंबर  एक एबिसिनियन (इथियोपिया में पैदा हुआ) था। उनके प्रारंभिक जीवन के बारे में बहुत कम जानकारी है; हालाँकि, शायद, वह एक गरीब परिवार से था और उसके माता-पिता ने उसे बगदाद के एक गुलाम बाजार में बेच दिया था। बाद में, उसे एक व्यापारी ने खरीद लिया, जिसने उसके साथ अच्छा व्यवहार किया और उसे दक्कन ले आया।

• जब मुगलों ने अहमदनगर पर आक्रमण किया, तो अंबर पहले वहां अपनी किस्मत आजमाने के लिए बीजापुर गया। लेकिन वह जल्द ही वापस लौट आया और खुद को शक्तिशाली  हब्शी में शामिल कर लिया  (एबिसिनियन) पार्टी में शामिल कर लिया, जो चांद बीबी के खिलाफ थी।

• अहमदनगर के पतन के बाद, मलिक अंबर ने बीजापुर के शासक के निहित समर्थन से  पेशवा की उपाधि प्राप्त की  (एक उपाधि जो उन दिनों अहमदनगर में आम थी)।

• मलिक अंबर ने अपने चारों ओर मराठा सैनिकों (या  बरगियों ) का एक बड़ा दल इकट्ठा किया। मराठा तीव्र गति से चलने और दुश्मन सैनिकों की आपूर्ति को लूटने और काटने में माहिर थे।

• अब्दुल रहीम खान-ए-खाना दक्कन में मुगल कमांडर था; वह एक चतुर और चतुर राजनीतिज्ञ और एक बुद्धिमान सैनिक था। 1601 में, उसने (अब्दुल रहीम) नांदेर (तेलंगाना में) नामक स्थान पर अंबर को करारी हार दी। हालाँकि, अब्दुल रहीम और अंबर के बीच दोस्ती के समझौते के साथ युद्ध समाप्त हो गया।

• अक्टूबर 1605 में अकबर की मृत्यु हो गई। उनकी मृत्यु के बाद, दक्कन क्षेत्रों में मुगल कमांडरों के बीच मतभेद थे; इस स्थिति ने अंबर को एक मौका दिया और इसलिए उसने बरार, बालाघाट और अहमदनगर से मुगलों को खदेड़ने के लिए एक आक्रामक अभियान चलाया।

• अंबर के अभियान को इब्राहिम आदिल शाह (बीजापुर के शासक) द्वारा सक्रिय रूप से समर्थन दिया गया था। आदिल शाह ने इसे आवश्यक माना क्योंकि उन्होंने सोचा था कि निजाम शाही राज्य बीजापुर और मुगलों के बीच एक बफर के रूप में जारी रहना चाहिए।

• आदिल शाह ने अंबर को अपने परिवार के निवास और खजाने, प्रावधानों आदि के लिए तेलंगाना में कंधार का शक्तिशाली किला दिया। पिता, आदिल शाह ने भी एम्बर का समर्थन करने के लिए 10,000 घुड़सवार भेजे।

• 1609 में, मलिक अंबर के साथ बीजापुर के प्रमुख इथियोपियाई रईसों में से एक की बेटियों के बीच विवाह गठबंधन द्वारा संधि को मजबूत किया गया था। आदिल शाह ने दुल्हन को एक सुंदर दहेज दिया और लगभग रु। आतिशबाजी पर 80,000 रु. इसी तरह, 1610 तक, अकबर द्वारा जीते गए अधिकांश क्षेत्र (दक्षिण में) खो गए थे।

जहांगीर

• जहांगीर  ने दक्कन पर विजय प्राप्त करने के लिए राजकुमार परवेज को एक बड़ी सेना के साथ भेजा, लेकिन वह मलिक अंबर द्वारा पेश की गई चुनौतियों का सामना नहीं कर सका। अंत में, अहमदनगर भी हार गया, और परवेज को अंबर के साथ एक शर्मनाक शांति समझौता करना पड़ा।

• समय के साथ, मलिक अंबर अभिमानी हो गया और उसने अपने सहयोगियों को अलग कर दिया। खान-ए-खाना, जिसे एक बार फिर दक्कन के मुगल वायसराय के रूप में तैनात किया गया था, ने स्थिति का फायदा उठाया और जगदेव राय, बाबाजी कटे, उदाजी सहित कई हब्शी और साथ ही मराठा रईसों को अपने पक्ष में कर  लिया  । राम, आदि

• 1616 में, मराठा  सरदारों की मदद से , खान-ए-खाना ने अहमदनगर, बीजापुर और गोलकुंडा की संयुक्त सेना को हराया। इस हार ने मुगलों के खिलाफ दक्कनी गठबंधन को झकझोर कर रख दिया। हालांकि, अंबर ने अपने प्रयासों में ढील नहीं दी।

• हालाँकि, जहाँगीर को दक्कन में मुगल प्रतिबद्धताओं का विस्तार करने, या यहाँ तक कि इसके मामलों में बहुत गहराई से शामिल होने में कोई दिलचस्पी नहीं थी। उनका विश्वास था कि उनके संयम से दक्कनी राज्यों को बसने और मुगलों के साथ शांति से रहने में मदद मिलेगी।

• जहाँगीर की कूटनीतिक नीति के बावजूद, अंबर ने मुगलों के खिलाफ दक्कन के प्रतिरोध का नेतृत्व करना जारी रखा। दो साल बाद, संयुक्त दक्कनी सेना फिर से मुगलों से हार गई। इन विजयों का श्रेय राजकुमार शाहजहाँ को दिया गया।

• हार के बाद, दक्कनी राज्यों को रुपये की क्षतिपूर्ति का भुगतान करना पड़ा। 5,000,000। बाद में, अंबर ने शोलापुर की वसूली के लिए बीजापुर के खिलाफ कई अभियान चलाए, जो दोनों राज्यों के बीच विवाद की एक हड्डी थी।

• अंबर ने एक उल्लेखनीय सैन्य कौशल, ऊर्जा और दृढ़ संकल्प दिखाया था। मुगल के नियमों और शर्तों को स्वीकार करने में असमर्थता या अनिच्छा के कारण उनकी उपलब्धियां अल्पकालिक थीं।

• मलिक अंबर ने टोडरमल की भू-राजस्व प्रणाली की शुरुआत करके निजाम शाही राज्य की प्रशासनिक व्यवस्था में सुधार करने का प्रयास किया। उन्होंने ठेके पर जमीन देने की पुरानी व्यवस्था को खत्म कर दिया।

• 1622 के बाद, एक ऐसी स्थिति में, जब दक्कन अपने पिता जहांगीर के खिलाफ राजकुमार शाहजहाँ के विद्रोह के कारण उथल-पुथल में था, मलिक अंबर एक बार फिर से कई पुराने क्षेत्रों को पुनः प्राप्त करने में कामयाब रहा, जिसे मुगलों ने सौंप दिया था। हालांकि इसके बाद भी वह ज्यादा समय तक जीवित नहीं रह सके और 1626 में 80 साल की उम्र में उनका निधन हो गया।

• After the break-up of the Bahmani kingdom, three powerful states, Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, and Golconda emerged as the independent states. In 1565, all these three states united to crush Vijayanagara Empire at the battle of Bannihatti, near Tallikota.

• After the victory in the battle of Bannihatti, the Deccani states resumed their old ways. Both Ahmednagar and Bijapur claimed Sholapur, which was a rich and fertile tract of that time.

• The Gujarat rulers actively supported Berar ruler against Ahmednagar, and later also engaged in a war against Ahmednagar. On the other hand, Bijapur and Golconda clashed over the possession of Naldurg (located in Maharashtra).

• In 1572, the Mughal emperor Akbar conquest Gujarat, which created a new situation. The conquest of Gujarat was just beginning of the Mughal conquest of the Deccan. However, Akbar at that time was busy elsewhere and did not pay attention to the Deccan affairs.

• Ahmednagar conquested Berar. Further, Ahmednagar and Bijapur made an agreement whereby Bijapur was left free to expand its territory in the south at the expense of Vijayanagara, while Ahmednagar ruled Berar.

• The Marathas were also started taking interest in the affairs of the Deccan.

• In south, the revenue affairs at the local level were in the hands of the Deccani Brahmans.

• During the middle of the sixteenth century, the rulers of the Deccan states relied upon a policy i.e. winning over the Marathas to their side.

• The Maratha chiefs were given services and positions in all the three leading states of the Deccan. Ibrahim Adil Shah (ruler of Bijapur), who ascended the throne in 1555, was the leading advocate of this policy.

• Ibrahim Adil Shah, most likely, introduced Marathi in revenue accounts at all levels. Besides, a few other families such as the Bhonsales who had the family name of Ghorpade, Dafles (or Chavans), etc., also rose to prominence in Bijapur.

• Ahmednagar ruler had been given the title of ‘Peshwa’ to a Brahmana, namely Kankoji Narsi.

Mughal’s Movement towards Deccan

• After decline of the Delhi Sultanate, many Sufi saints and other people in search of the employment had migrated to the court of the Bahmani rulers.

• After the conquest of Malwa and Gujarat in 1560's and early 1570's, Akbar gradually moved towards the Deccan politics.

• In 1576, a Mughal army invaded Khandesh, and compelled the rulers of Khandesh to surrender. However, because of the 12 years (from 1586 to 1598) Akbar’s absent from India (he was lived at Lahore during this period), affairs in the Deccan deteriorated.

• Among the Deccan states, there was very unstable politics. War among the various Deccan states was a frequent occurrence. Religion (especially shia and sunni) was the leading cause of conflict.

Mahdawi Belief

• Mahdawi ideas had spread widely in the Deccan. In fact, a group of the Muslims believed that in every epoch, a man from the family of the Prophet will make an appearance and will strengthen the religion, and make justice triumph; such a group of Muslims were known as the ‘Mahdi.’

• In India, Saiyid Muhammad, who was born at Jaunpur (in Uttar Pradesh), in the first half of the fifteenth century, proclaimed himself as the Mahdi.

• Saiyid Muhammad traveled throughout the country as well as in the Islamic world, which created great enthusiasm. He established his dairas (circles) in different parts of the country, including the Deccan where his ideas found a fertile soil. However, the orthodox elements were bitterly opposed to Mahdawaism as to Shiism.

Foreign Power

• Akbar was apprehensive because of the growing power of the Portuguese, as they had been interfering the pilgrim traffic (to Mecca), not sparing even the royal ladies.

• In their territories, Portuguese were practicing the proselytizing activities, which Akbar disliked. Akbar apparently felt that the coordination and pooling of the resources of the Deccani states under Mughal supervision would check, if not eliminate, the Portuguese danger.

• बहमनी साम्राज्य के टूटने के बाद, तीन शक्तिशाली राज्य,  अहमदनगर ,  बीजापुर और  गोलकुंडा  स्वतंत्र राज्यों के रूप में उभरे। 1565 में, ये तीनों राज्य  तल्लीकोटा के पास बन्नीहट्टी की लड़ाई में विजयनगर साम्राज्य को कुचलने के लिए एकजुट हुए।

• बन्निहट्टी की लड़ाई में जीत के बाद, दक्कनी राज्यों ने अपने पुराने तरीके फिर से शुरू कर दिए। अहमदनगर और बीजापुर दोनों ने शोलापुर पर दावा किया, जो उस समय का एक समृद्ध और उपजाऊ इलाका था।

• गुजरात के शासकों ने अहमदनगर के खिलाफ बरार शासक का सक्रिय रूप से समर्थन किया, और बाद में अहमदनगर के खिलाफ युद्ध में भी शामिल हो गए। दूसरी ओर, बीजापुर और गोलकुंडा  नालदुर्ग  (महाराष्ट्र में स्थित) के कब्जे को लेकर आपस में भिड़ गए।

• 1572 में मुगल बादशाह अकबर ने गुजरात पर विजय प्राप्त की, जिसने एक नई स्थिति पैदा कर दी। गुजरात की विजय दक्कन की मुगल विजय की शुरुआत थी। हालाँकि, अकबर उस समय कहीं और व्यस्त था और उसने दक्कन के मामलों पर ध्यान नहीं दिया।

• अहमदनगर ने बरार पर विजय प्राप्त की। इसके अलावा, अहमदनगर और बीजापुर ने एक समझौता किया जिसके तहत बीजापुर को विजयनगर की कीमत पर दक्षिण में अपने क्षेत्र का विस्तार करने के लिए स्वतंत्र छोड़ दिया गया, जबकि अहमदनगर ने बरार पर शासन किया।

• मराठों ने भी दक्कन के मामलों में दिलचस्पी लेना शुरू कर दिया था।

• दक्षिण में, स्थानीय स्तर पर राजस्व मामले दक्कनी ब्राह्मणों के हाथों में थे।

• सोलहवीं शताब्दी के मध्य के दौरान, दक्कन राज्यों के शासकों ने एक नीति पर भरोसा किया अर्थात मराठों को अपने पक्ष में जीत लिया।

• मराठा प्रमुखों को दक्कन के तीनों प्रमुख राज्यों में सेवाएं और पद दिए गए थे। इब्राहिम आदिल शाह  (बीजापुर का शासक), जो 1555 में गद्दी पर बैठा, इस नीति के प्रमुख अधिवक्ता थे।

• इब्राहिम आदिल शाह ने, सबसे अधिक संभावना है, सभी स्तरों पर राजस्व खातों में मराठी की शुरुआत की। इसके अलावा, कुछ अन्य परिवार जैसे  भोंसले  जिनके परिवार का नाम  घोरपड़े ,  डैफल्स  (या  चव्हाण ) आदि था, भी बीजापुर में प्रमुखता से उभरे।

• अहमदनगर के शासक को कांकोजी नरसी नाम के एक ब्राह्मण को  ' पेशवा ' की उपाधि दी गई थी ।

दक्कन की ओर मुगलों का आंदोलन

• दिल्ली सल्तनत के पतन के बाद, रोजगार की तलाश में कई सूफी संत और अन्य लोग बहमनी शासकों के दरबार में चले गए थे।

• 1560 और 1570 के दशक की शुरुआत में मालवा और गुजरात की विजय के बाद, अकबर धीरे-धीरे दक्कन की राजनीति की ओर बढ़ा।

• 1576 में, एक मुगल सेना ने खानदेश पर आक्रमण किया, और खानदेश के शासकों को आत्मसमर्पण करने के लिए मजबूर किया। हालाँकि, 12 वर्षों (1586 से 1598 तक) के कारण अकबर भारत से अनुपस्थित था (वह इस अवधि के दौरान लाहौर में रहता था), दक्कन में मामले बिगड़ गए।

• दक्कन के राज्यों में बहुत अस्थिर राजनीति थी। विभिन्न दक्कन राज्यों के बीच युद्ध एक बार-बार होने वाली घटना थी। धर्म (विशेषकर  शिया  और  सुन्नी ) संघर्ष का प्रमुख कारण था।

महदावी विश्वास

• महदवी  के विचार दक्कन में व्यापक रूप से फैल गए थे। वास्तव में, मुसलमानों के एक समूह का मानना ​​​​था कि हर युग में, पैगंबर के परिवार का एक व्यक्ति प्रकट होगा और धर्म को मजबूत करेगा, और न्याय की जीत करेगा; मुसलमानों के ऐसे समूह को ' महदी ' के नाम से जाना जाता था ।

• भारत में, सैय्यद मुहम्मद, जो पंद्रहवीं शताब्दी के पूर्वार्द्ध में जौनपुर (उत्तर प्रदेश में) में पैदा हुए थे, ने खुद को महदी घोषित किया।

• सैय्यद मुहम्मद ने पूरे देश के साथ-साथ इस्लामी दुनिया में भी यात्रा की, जिससे बहुत उत्साह पैदा हुआ। उन्होंने   दक्कन सहित देश के विभिन्न हिस्सों में अपने डेरे (मंडलियां) स्थापित किए, जहां उनके विचारों को उपजाऊ मिट्टी मिली। हालाँकि, रूढ़िवादी तत्व  शियावाद के रूप में महदाववाद का कड़ा विरोध करते थे  ।

विदेशी शक्ति

• पुर्तगालियों की बढ़ती शक्ति के कारण अकबर आशंकित था, क्योंकि वे तीर्थयात्रियों (मक्का के लिए) में हस्तक्षेप कर रहे थे, यहाँ तक कि शाही महिलाओं को भी नहीं बख्शा।

• अपने क्षेत्रों में, पुर्तगाली धर्मांतरण गतिविधियों का अभ्यास कर रहे थे, जो अकबर को नापसंद थे। अकबर ने स्पष्ट रूप से महसूस किया कि मुगल पर्यवेक्षण के तहत दक्कनी राज्यों के संसाधनों का समन्वय और पूलिंग पुर्तगाली खतरे को खत्म नहीं करेगा, अगर नहीं।

• Mughal’s disciplinary and central administrative system was not acceptable by many regional independent nobles who were still strong, particularly in areas such as Gujarat, Bengal, and Bihar. All these kingdoms had a long tradition of forming separate kingdoms.

Rebels in Rajasthan

• In Rajasthan, Rana Pratap's struggle for freedom was one of the major problems for Mughal Empire. In such a case, Akbar had to deal with a series of rebellions.

Rebels in Gujarat

• Gujarat remained in a state of unrest for almost two years due to a proposal for freedom by a representative of the old ruling dynasty.

Rebels in Bengal and Bihar

• The most serious rebellion during Akbar period was in Bengal and Bihar extended up to Jaunpur (east Uttar Pradesh).

• The major cause of the rebels in Bengal and Bihar was the strict enforcement of the dagh system or branding of the horses of the jagirdars, and strict accounting of their incomes.

• Akbar's half-brother, Mirza Hakim, the ruler of Kabul, also abetted the rebellion. A large number of Afghans in the eastern region were sullen at the loss of the Afghan power and were ready to join a rebellion.

• The rebellions kept the Mughal Empire distracted for almost two years (1580-81), and hence Akbar had to face with a very difficult situation. Due to the mishandling of the situation by local officials, Bengal and Bihar passed into the hands of the rebels who declared Mirza Hakim as their ruler.

• The rebellions of Bengal and Bihar even received a religious divine to issue a fatwa, assembled the faithful to take the action against Akbar.

• To control the rebellions of Bengal and Bihar, Akbar sent a force (led by Todar Mal). Akbar also sent force (led by Raja Man Singh) to check the expected attack by Mirza Hakim.

• Todar Mal proceeded with great strength and controlled the situation in the east. On the other hand, Mirza Hakim advanced on Lahore with 15,000 horses, but his effort was dismantled collectively by Raja Man Singh and Bhagwan Das.

• In 1581, Akbar completed his success by marching to Kabul. It was the first time when an Indian ruler had entered in a historic town.

• Mirza Hakim refused to accept Akbar's suzerainty, or to come to pay personal allegiance to him, hence, Akbar handed over Kabul to his sister, before returning to India.

• Abdullah Khan Uzbek, who was the hereditary enemy of the Mughals, had been gradually gathering strength in Central Asia. In 1584, he overran Badakhshan (it was the region of northeastern Afghanistan and southeastern Tajikistan), which had been ruled by the Timurids.

• Mirza Hakim and the Timurid princes ousted from Badakhshan; hence, they appealed to Akbar for help. But before Akbar could take any action, Mirza Hakim died due to excessive drinking and left Kabul in a state of disturbance.

• In 1586, to block all roads to the Uzbeks, Akbar sent expeditions against Kashmir and Baluchistan. Likewise, the whole of Kashmir, including Ladakh and Baluchistan, came under Mughal Empire.

• Expeditions were also sent to clear the Khybar Pass, which had been blocked by rebellious tribesmen. In an expedition against them, Raja Birbal, the favorite of Akbar, lost his life. But the Afghan tribesmen were gradually forced to surrender.

• The consolidation of the north-west and fixing a scientific frontier of the empire were two of the major achievements of Akbar. Further, Akbar’s conquest of Sindh (1590) also opened Punjab for trade down the river Indus.

• Akbar stayed at Lahore till 1598, until the death of Abdullah Uzbek. Abdullah Uzbek’s death, finally, removed the threat from the Uzbek side.

• Orissa, which was under the domination of Afghan chiefs, was conquered by Raja Man Singh. Man Singh also conquered Cooch-Bihar and parts of Bengal, including Dacca.

• Mirza Aziz Koka, the foster-brother of Akbar, conquered Kathiawar in the west. Akbar deputed Khan-i-Khanan Munim Khan and prince Murad at Deccan in the south India.

Integration of States

• By adopting a liberal policy of religious toleration and, in some cases, by giving important jobs, including service at the court and in the army, to the Hindus, Akbar successfully attempted to integrate all religious people.

• The contemporary popular saints, such as Chaitanya, Kabir, and Nanak, (resided in different parts of the country) emphasized on the essential unity of Islam and Hinduism.

• One of the first actions, which Akbar took, after coming into power, was to abolish the jizyah (tax), which the non-Muslims were required to pay in a Muslim state.

• Akbar also abolished the pilgrim-tax on bathing at holy places such as Prayag, Banaras, etc. Further, Akbar abolished the practice of forcibly converting prisoners of war to Islam.

• From the beginning, Akbar successfully attempted to gather a band of intellectual people with liberal ideas at his court. Abul Fazl and his brother Faizi were the most recognized scholars of that time. However, both of them were persecuted by the mullahs for having sympathy with Mahdawi ideas.

• Mahesh Das (a Brahman), who is more popular as Raja Birbal was one of the most trustworthy nobles of Akbar’s court.

• In 1575, Akbar built a hall known as Ibadat Khana (or the Hall of Prayer) at his new capital, Fatehpur Sikri (nearby Agra), which Akbar kept open for all religious people including Christians, Hindus, Zoroastrians, Jains, and even atheists.

• Akbar’s Ibadta Khana horrified many theologians, and various rumors spread i.e. Akbar about to forsake Islam. However, Akbar was less successful in his effort to find a meeting place between the votaries of different religions in his territory.

• The debates in the Ibadat Khana had not led to a better understanding among the different religions, but rather lead to bitterness, as the representatives of each religion criticized the other and tried to prove that their religion was superior to others. In 1582, by understanding the conflicting situation, Akbar withdrawn the debates in the Ibadat Khana.

• Akbar invited Purushottam and Devi (Hindu philosophers) to explain the doctrines of Hinduism. He also invited Maharji Rana to explain the doctrines of Zoroastrianism.

• To understand the Christian religion, Akbar also met with some Portuguese priests, he sent an embassy to Goa, requesting them to send learned missionaries to his court. Two Portuguese saints namely Aquaviva and Monserrate came and remained at Akbar’s court for almost three years.

• Akbar also met with Hira Vijaya Suri, the leading Jain saint of Kathiawar, he also spent a couple of years at Akbar’s court.

• Abd-ul-Qadir Bada'uni (an Indo-Persian historian and translator) asserted that as a result of knowing different religious views, Akbar gradually turned away from the Islam and set up a new religion, which was compounded many existing religions. However, there is very little evidence to prove that Akbar intended or actually promulgated a new religion of such kind.

• The word used by Abul Fazl and Bada'uni for the so called new path was “tauhid-i-ilahi.” The literal meaning of tauhid-i-ilahi is “Divine Monotheism.”

• Akbar initiated ‘Pabos’ (or kissing the floor before the sovereign), a ceremony which was previously reserved for God.

• Akbar tried to emphasize the concept of ‘sulh-kul’ (or peace and harmony) among different religions in other ways as well. He set up a big translation department for translating works in Sanskrit, Arabic, Greek, etc., into Persian. Most likely, it was the time when the Quran was also translated for the first time.

Social Reforms

• Akbar introduced a number of social and educational reforms. He stopped sati (the burning of a widow), unless she herself, of her own free will, determinedly desired it. Further, Akbar made a strict rule that widows of tender age who had not shared the bed with their husbands were not to be burnt at all. Akbar also legalized Widow Remarriage.

• Akbar was not in favor of second marriage (having two wives at the same time) unless the first wife was barren.

• Akbar raised the marriage age, 14 for girls and 16 for boys.

• Akbar restricted the sale of wines and spirits.

• Akbar revised the educational syllabus, emphasizing more on moral education and mathematics, and on secular subjects including agriculture, geometry, astronomy, rules of government, logic, history, etc.

• Akbar gave patronage to artists, poets, painters, and musicians, as his court was infused with famous and scholar people, more popularly known as the ‘navaratna.’

• Akbar’s empire (as many historians claim) was essentially secular, liberal, and a promoter of cultural integration. It was enlightened with social and cultural matters.